Highlighting the Distinct Profile of the Newly Recognized Naja fuxi

Cobras (Naja spp.) account for a major variety of snakebite incidents in Thailand. The monocled cobra (Naja kaouthia) has traditionally been thought-about the one non-spitting species, however latest proof signifies population-level diversification in central and southern areas. Moreover, a newly described non-spitting species, the mountain cobra (Naja fuxi), has been recognized in mountainous areas. This examine investigates venom variation amongst Thai Naja species and populations and evaluates the efficacy of monovalent and polyvalent Thai antivenoms. Proteomic analyses revealed that three-finger toxins dominate Naja venoms, whereas N. fuxi reveals a definite profile enriched in snake venom metalloproteinases and cysteine-rich secretory proteins, suggesting evolutionary divergence. Electrophoretic and enzymatic assays demonstrated species- and population-specific variations in phospholipase A₂, acetylcholinesterase, hyaluronidase, L-amino acid oxidase, phosphodiesterase, and protease actions. Cytotoxicity assays on human fibroblasts and mouse myoblasts confirmed that N. kaouthia (southern) and N. fuxi venoms induced essentially the most potent and time-dependent cell injury, whereas central N. kaouthia and king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) venoms have been much less cytotoxic. Immunoreactivity and neutralisation assays indicated that the species-specific monovalent antivenom successfully binds and neutralises cobra venoms, whereas neuro-polyvalent antivenom gives average cross-protection, and haemato-polyvalent antivenom is very particular to viperid venom. These findings reveal substantial inter- and intraspecific venom variation in Thai cobras, emphasising the significance of population-level concerns in antivenom design and snakebite administration. Steady analysis of venom composition and antivenom efficacy is important to optimise medical outcomes throughout Thailand’s various landscapes.